RESULTS

While 116 athletes completed the pre-measures, only 86 (62 males; 24 females) athletes completed both the pre- and post-questionnaires. This represents 73% of all athletes in the study. Possible reasons for attrition (i.e., not completing the post questionnaire) include relocation, change in school schedule (e.g., now attend school during the same time as the programme is offered), or being absent on the day of the post questionnaire.

Data was then screened to ensure accuracy of data input and for outliers to ensure that each variable was normally distributed. All of the skewness levels were within acceptable ranges of +/- 2.0 thereby conforming to assumptions of normal distribution required for analyses of variance.³⁹ Five (four pre-measures and one post-measure) of the total 54 variables had kurtosis levels that exceeded the recommended levels of +/- 3.0. However, due to the relatively small sample size of 86, the adequate skewness levels for each variable, the strong psychometric properties of the questionnaires, and the robustness of multivariate analyses, no data were eliminated or transformed in the  analyses.

Questionnaire results

Table 1 provides an overview of the descriptive results of the pre- and post-measures for each variable. A significant multivariate effect for the within subject variable of time was found: [ג (18, 67) = .519; p < .001, eta2 = .48]. Subsequent univariate analyses indicated significant within-subject effects for Communication Life Skills [F(1, 84) = 8.83, p < .01, eta2 = .095] and the Coaches’ overall rating of athletes’ Life Skills [F(1, 84) = 27.14, p < .001, eta2 = .244]. In both cases, the mean score at Time 2 was significantly higher than the reported score at Time 1.

Subsequent Repeated Measures of Analysis revealed that the coaches’ observation ratings for each of the individual life skill ratings of Interacting with others [F (1,85) = 7.25; p < .01, eta2 = .08], Overcoming difficulty [F (1,85) = 14.78; p < .001, eta2 = .15], Taking initiative [F (1,85) = 12.84; p < .01, eta2 = .13], Managing conflict [F (1,85) = 10.88; p < .01, eta2 = .11], and Listening to and following instructions [F (1,85) = 14.86; p < .001, eta2 = .15] were significantly higher at follow-up compared to baseline.

Repeated MANOVAs were also conducted to explore the potential impact of Sex, Type of sport (combative vs non-combative), Location (Zone 7 vs Zone 18) and Years in the programme (Less than 1 year, More than 1 year). There were no significant multivariate or univariate interactions between Time and Sex and Time and Years in program. However, there was a significant univariate interaction effect for Time x Location for the coaches’ Life skill ratings. [F(1, 84) = 4.65, p < .05, eta2 = .053]. Follow-up Pairwise T-tests revealed that the coaches’ overall Life skill ratings of athletes in Zone 7 significantly increased from Time 1 to Time 2 [t(1, 68) = 5.76; p < .001] while coaches overall Life skill ratings of athletes in Zone 18 did not significantly change [t(1, 17) = 0.49; p > .05].

Significant univariate interactions for Time x Type of sport for the coaches’ Life skill ratings [F(1, 84) = 4.14, p < .05, eta2 = .047] and Critical thinking life skills [F(1, 84) = 4.83, p < .05, eta2 = .055] variables were also found. Follow-up Paired T-tests revealed that while coaches’ overall Life skills ratings significantly improved for those in both non-combative sports [t(1, 32) = 4.13; p < .001] and combative sports [t(1, 52) = 3.61; p < .01], subsequent one-way ANOVA’s demonstrated that at Time 2, coaches’ ratings of Overall life skills were significantly higher for those in non-combative sports compared to those in combative sports [F(1, 84) = 0.22, p > .05]. These differences did not exist at Time 1 [F(1, 84) = 4.11, p < .05]. Paired T-tests revealed that Critical thinking skills significantly improved from Time 1 to Time 2 for those in combative sports [t(1, 52) = 3.61; p < .01]  but not for those in non- combative sports [t(1, 32) = 0.76; p > .05].

Interview results

Five core themes related to the impact of the Hoodlinks programme emerged from the qualitative analysis: i) Provides a safe place for youth to play; ii)  Provides an alternative to delinquent behaviours; iii) Supports the development of positive life skills (both interpersonal and personal); iv) Provides other forms of support; and v) Has a broader community impact. These themes were consistent from the Baseline interviews and 6-month Follow-up interviews. Table 2 provides a breakdown of the occurrence of each sub-theme based upon time (Baseline and follow-up) and participant (coach, athlete, and parent/guardian).

Themes

1. Safe place for youth to play

Many of the parents spoke about the dangerous communities in which they lived. Zones 18 and seven have some of the highest rates of violence in Guatemala City. Many parents spoke about not letting their children play outside in the street and having to leave their children alone at home because they had to work and/or because the child’s other biological parent did not live with them. Therefore, the children were either at school or inside the home watching TV, playing video games, or doing other indoor activities. The following quote provides an example of the type of neighbourhoods many of the participants live in and the fear that parents have of letting their children outside to play.

I prefer them to be locked down at home, I prefer to buy them some movies, and leave them watching TV because if I am not with them, they cannot go out because I go out to work and if something happens to them outside and I do not know. Oh no! Oh my God! I cannot give them permission to go out because sometimes young people with shotguns pass close to where we live… (Parent, baseline)

The addition of the Hoodlinks programme within the communities gave their children a place to play under adult supervision at no cost. For the most part, parents viewed these places as safe because there were adult coaches there to watch over their children.

My son did not have the opportunity to go to another place because the place we live at is dangerous, so he hadn’t been able to go. So now that we had the opportunity to come here [to the programme], my son is too excited. So he told me to come here and thanks God, here we are and I even do the [Boxing] practice with him… (Parent, baseline)

Another athlete in a follow-up interview stated: “I always come to train and no longer keep me locked up [at home].”

2. Hoodlinks provides a diversion from delinquency

Several of the parents commented that without Hoodlinks, their children would be tempted to participate in delinquent activities.

When the Olympic Foundation hadn’t arrived yet, there were some people who came to try to convince young people to be gang members. But we thank God because when the Olympic Foundation started the project in here, all the young people joined and this place gets full. Little by little the situation has been more calmed. (Parent, baseline)

One of the main outcomes identified by participants of the Hoodlinks programme was that it kept the kids “off the streets” and diverted their attention away from other, and in many cases more dangerous activities. These two athletes identified the important role that Hoodlinks played in their community: “It was something different for the neighborhood because everybody used to be outside doing bad things … now everybody is doing good things, doing sports.” (Athlete, baseline) Another athlete in a follow-up interview noted, “I think Hoodlinks has helped many young people because they are not in troubles, drugs or gangs any more they are training and focused on sport.

Coaches also identified with the role that Hoodlinks had of helping kids get off the street and participate in more positive prosocial activities offered through the programme. One coach in a baseline interview, stated:

I think that if programs like this were implemented, we would reduce delinquency rates considerably because it would be possible to keep the minds of the children busy, their bodies would be working, they would be thinking of a better future, and we would avoid gang members to come and influence them to do bad things.

3. Athletes learn life skills in Hoodlinks

Participants, parents, and coaches all identified the positive impact that the Hoodlinks programme had on learning various life skills. The type of life skills that participants identified were grouped under either Interpersonal or Personal life skills.

a) Interpersonal. Interpersonal skills refer to skills that individuals use to interact with others. Table 2 provides a summary of participants who identified specific interpersonal skills during both the baseline and follow-up interviews.

i) Respectful of others. All three groups mentioned becoming more respectful of others as a result of their participation in Hoodlinks. Athletes typically identified being more respectful of their coach, for others in the programme and for those outside the programme such as friends, family members, and teachers as an important life skill learned in the programme. An athlete in a follow-up interview stated:

In a Badminton competition you have to apply fair play because some points the judge don’t see well and can score it or not. But if we are honest, the truth must be first of all. We have to respect the opponent because this is only a competition they are not our enemies. After the competition we can talk or be friendly with them.

Another athlete in in a follow-up interview stated: “About respect, I have learned to respect decisions and opinions of others, because all of us have different way of thinking,” while another athlete in a baseline interview noted,  “I have learnt respect. You have to be respectful everywhere you go: the house, the school, and other places.”

ii) Social cohesion. Social cohesion, or the opportunity to make friends and develop a social network through the Hoodlinks programme, was also identified by all three groups. For the athletes they felt that Hoodlinks had provided them with an opportunity to make new friends. Some had commented on how much easier it was to make friends at Hoodlinks compared to school. Athletes also commented on how Hoodlinks had taught them the importance of developing friendships and positive interactions with others. An athlete in a follow-up interview maintained, “At school we used to do homework in a group and it is necessary to know how to work with others. If we do not work in group it can be more difficult.” These positive interactions were also noted by one of the coaches in a baseline interview, “At the beginning of the project, they pass in front of others and did not speak. The project came and help them to be friendly, and communicate better and avoid conflicts between them…”

iii) Conflict resolution. The ability to solve conflict in a more peaceful manner was another interpersonal skill that the athletes, parents, and coaches all felt that Hoodlinks taught the athletes. Strategies such as walking away and not getting into a fight and to intervene when they saw a friend start to fight were identified by athletes as conflict resolution skills learned during the Hoodlinks programme. Parents also commented that their children had become less aggressive at school and at home and noticed less use of fighting to solve problems since participating in the programme. As this parent noted, her son has also passed on these strategies to his brothers at home: “Well, he try to talk with his brothers if they are fighting to avoid a worse fight. He don’t like his brothers or others fighting. I can see a big change in my son.” (Parent, follow-up)

iv) Other interpersonal skills. Table 2 provides a summary of the other types of interpersonal skills identified by the participants. For the most part, these interpersonal skills promoted pro-social behavior such as helping generate leadership qualities, being able to communicate and collaborate better with others, helping others and helping out more at home, using more elements of fair play, and being able to defend oneself.

b) Personal skills. Personal skills refer to skills that individuals have and that impact people primarily at a personal level.

i) Self-regulation. All three participant groups commented on improvements to athletes’ self-regulation skills. Specifically, many noted improvements in the athletes’ temperament and ability to control their anger to avoid getting into fights. “I think so because in the past, my temper used to be like bad and since I come here, I have improved a lot. I don’t get angry anymore. I try to handle things better.” (Athlete, baseline)

ii) Self-improvement. Participants identified areas of self-improvement, particularly with sport skill techniques such as improved flexibility and striving towards excellence. Other areas of self-improvement included not using foul language and stopping substance use of tobacco and drugs. The following quote by an athlete in a follow-up interview highlights how Hoodlinks has motivated them to be a better person:

Personally [Hoodlinks] has changed me a lot. Sometime ago, I used to answer bad to my mother, go out (on the street), but no more… I do not stay on the street. I prefer to use that time to read, to study.  The behavior with my parents and brothers has improved. Definitely, the impact has been amazing. I was so rebellious but no more.

Parents in particular commented that athletes were discouraged from abusing substances such as drugs, alcohol,
and tobacco because it would negatively affect their sport performance. One parent in a baseline interview stated:

Yes, there are many guys who practice with us, in the past, they used to smoke marijuana, but they have stopped because they already realized on how that substance affects their performance.

iii) Personal responsibility. Personal skills pertaining to personal responsibility was identified by all three participant groups. Athletes and parents mentioned that Hoodlinks had taught them to be responsible by being punctual and arriving to the programme site on time and by assisting others. For example, one parent in a follow-up interview talked about the importance her son learning to be responsible by helping others in the neighbourhood without expectation of payment: “The most important value he has learned is responsibility, discipline and that he avoid problems. Now he helps me a lot at home.”

iv) Goal setting. The impact of Hoodlinks to help the athletes set individual goals was another theme common to all three groups of participants. As this athlete in a follow-up interview and one coach identified, Hoodlinks helped them not only to set goals, but also to track and monitor their personal goals in and outside of sport:

Most of them have set goals for life. Before the project they were aimless, do not know what they want, and neither what sport they were good [at]. But Hoodlinks programme helps us to understand, learn and focus on something that we really like and we know we are on the right track.

v) Other: A number of other themes were identified less frequently by participant groups. These included appreciation, confidence, honesty, motivation, decision-making, leadership, problem solving, stress management, striving for excellence, and resilience. Although not as frequently mentioned by all of the groups, these themes are important to recognize as contributing factors in the role Hoodlinks plays in these communities.

4. Hoodlinks provides other types of support

Parents commented on the additional support that the Hoodlinks programme provides in the form of academic support, scholarships, parent workshops, family support, and basic necessities. Often times, parents cannot afford to have their children attend school due to the additional costs (e.g., uniforms) or require their children to work to earn money for the family. However, by receiving a scholarship, the families are able to afford to have their children attend schools. Athletes must maintain good academic standing and have regular attendance and positive behaviours to continue to receive the scholarship throughout the school year. One parent in a follow-up interview noted:

I tell to my kids they have to approach the benefits Hoodlinks give them, because this year I don’t have money to continue studies. But thanks God and Foundation, three of my children have scholarship; that is one of the reasons I am grateful. The last year I got fired it was a difficult time for us. So I told them they have to take all blessings…

For many of the parents, they felt that participation in the Hoodlinks programme also encouraged success at school. Parents felt that athletes learned to be more disciplined through the programme and therefore were more likely to do their homework than to play on the streets during their free time. Coaches in particular stressed the importance of doing well in school and completing their homework. Another parent in a baseline interview maintained:

Until now that the foundation arrived to this place, they are doing so much for many kids because I see that there are many children who are getting benefits because of this project … Last year, he did not do well at the school. But this year he has been doing great thanks to coach X who has been insisting him to do homework.

The coaches also served as mentors to many of their athletes and became someone with whom they could go to for advice. As one coach noted in a follow-up interview:

But I have seen significant changes on my athletes to someone it is difficult to stop bad habits like smoking, for example; because one of them came to training smelling of marijuana. (Despite they not smoke during training) but now I see that they are honest with me and told me: “teacher I smoked, I did this, or I did not do that”; I think we’ve created that bond of sincerity and honesty and I can work with them in a better way, get close and if they allow me, suggest some things. They are sincere with me and then I can work with them in a better way, approach and advise them like a friend.

5. Changes within the community

Parents in particular noticed positive changes in their community. They described it as more calm or peaceful. For example, one parent in a baseline interview stated:

Well, thanks God it has been calmed. I realized that there was a change when the project started because in the past, there was much delinquency, groups, and all the stuff. But now that the project started, I see here in Las Torres that there was a change. Almost every day you see people playing at the football court, so every group that arrives has their own rules, they leave and then another one comes at around 5pm or 6pm. The ones from here arrive and they play at until 9pm. That is the change that I have seen.

Parents and athletes also commented about the joy and fun that the programme had brought to the community. One parent in a follow-up interview stated, “Before the project there were many kids who were doing bad things, but when the project came it was a shock for us, because it is free. We can train, learn and have fun.”

When asked what would happen if the Boxing programme left their neighbourhood, this parent responded in a baseline interview, “But I think that it can continue being here, it is better to me if it is here because the peace will continue in this area. If they leave and go to start at another place, there is going to be violence again.”

Coaches also stressed the importance of ensuring that the programme is sustainable in the communities to which they have made a commitment to offer programming. One coach in a baseline interview emphasized:

The acceptance of the people [in the community] also counts. At the beginning it is going to be something like: Oh well, there is a project which just comes for certain period of time and then it is going to leave. At the beginning it is very complicated, but you have to…we have to demonstrate them the project as it is, the vision that you have.