RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Two overarching themes were identified with various subthemes. Table 2 provides a summary of the themes and subthemes, and sample participant quotations. The following sections present and discuss the study findings within the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017) while drawing on relevant sport and disability research. The theoretical and pragmatic implications of these findings, as well as future research directions are also considered.

Table 2 – Themes and Subthemes with Descriptions and Participant Quotations

^a Outcomes perceived as negative.

Theme One: Outcomes Acquired Through Sport

Theme one highlights the outcomes that YWPD reported from engaging in sport-related experiences. Outcomes were categorized into the following four subthemes, which were identified deductively based on elements from the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017): a) physical outcomes, b) social outcomes, c) personal outcomes, and d) life skills. Although most of these outcomes were perceived to be positive, it is important to reflect on the negative outcomes that were also disclosed.

Physical Outcomes

YWPD reported that playing sport provided them with opportunities—and in some cases, a reason—to be physically active. Every single participant expressed a desire to continue playing sport or being physically active in the future: “I would still love to do at least one sport, stay active and still socialize with people similar to me” (P7, M, Age 15, Adapted Skiing and Sledge Hockey). This outcome is consistent with the PYD through sport model (Skills for Healthy Active Living, Holt et al., 2017), and supports the notion that sport participation may promote increased physical activity participation among YWPD (Buffart et al., 2008; Marques et al., 2016). Given that physical activity rates among YWPD remain low (Murphy & Carbone, 2008; Woodmansee et al., 2016), this finding highlights the need to leverage organized sport opportunities to promote long-term physical activity participation.

YWPD reported experiencing improvements in strength, balance, and flexibility, which, in some cases, helped improve mobility (walking and wheeling) and mitigate disability-related health problems:

It [swimming] makes me strong, helped with my flexibility. It helped me with my walking as well… and muscle tightening up is one of the problems with cerebral palsy, so it helps for me to not have surgery on my legs (P2, F, Age 14, Swimming).

These findings indicate how participants believed that organized sport participation yielded physical benefits that may have important implications related to improving or maintaining their functional ability and physical independence (e.g., perform activities of daily living; Murphy & Carbone, 2008; Rimmer, 2001; te Velde et al., 2018). This is consistent with previous research highlighting the importance of physical health considerations as motivation for sport participation among some athletes with disabilities (Molik et al., 2010).

Finally, YWPD discussed opportunities to learn and develop a wide range of physical skills related to their sport (e.g., swim strokes) and emphasized the importance of seeing themselves “get better”. For example,

We’ve gotten like skilled enough to be able to play games without the teacher being involved as in like serving it. It can just be between us and I think that’s pretty significant because it shows all of the progress we’ve made and the stuff that we’re able to play so I think that’s really fun (P4, M, Age 15, Wheelchair Tennis and Adapted Skiing).

YWPD were able to recognize and appreciate the benefits of physical outcomes and being challenged. In fact, participants felt that a lack of improvement or feeling held back in their athletic development was a negative outcome of their sport experiences. YWPD have previously articulated the need to make progress, feel challenged, and achieve mastery within sport (Bantjes et al., 2015). Sport environments that offer opportunities for YWPD to experience challenge and mastery may be particularly valuable (Evans et al., 2018) and subsequently facilitate meaningful PYD outcomes.

Social Outcomes

According to YWPD, the social environment played a role in facilitating several positive outcomes, including making friends, as well as developing teamwork and leadership skills. For example, YWPD discussed being a team player, collaborating with peers, showing respect, and teaching and helping others. Some participants even expressed a desire to be a role-model for others and to educate people about disability and parasport.

As a 21-year-old like I feel like I could help people show them like, “ok this is what CP [cerebral palsy] looks like, this is what I can tell you about it, and there’s people like me in this world that you just have to look out for” (P8, M, Age 21, Soccer).

The social outcomes reported by YWPD resonate with those outlined in the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017). Sport-based PYD literature among youth with (e.g., Turnnidge et al., 2012) and without disabilities (Lower-Hoppe et al., 2021) document the value of relationships and social interactions in promoting outcomes related to teamwork and leadership skills, as was found in this study.

Participants valued the connections and relationships they developed through sport, which were thought to promote feelings of belonging and acceptance. This was evident when YWPD spoke about being part of a community, team, or family: “A positive moment was you know it’s not a single moment but for the whole duration of my career I’m part of a community which is great you know I feel at home” (P3, M, Age 16, Wheelchair Rugby). This finding is consistent with previous research identifying belongingness as an outcome associated with sport participation among YWPD (Turnnidge et al., 2012), as well as an important component in fostering positive sport experiences among athletes with disabilities (Evans et al., 2018).

In contrast, some YWPD expressed feeling disconnected or excluded when they experienced difficulties relating to peers or participating in sport. These outcomes were perceived negatively and reported mainly by YWPD who had participated in integrated sport settings (e.g., among peers without disabilities or with varying levels of abilities). One YWPD highlighted, “Certain struggles that I had with normal people that… well they don’t understand what disability I have, and they didn’t understand what kind of limitations. And uh… you know kind of left out a little bit” (P3, M, Age 16, Wheelchair Rugby).

Although integrated sport settings can benefit both athletes with and without disabilities (Klenk et al., 2019), participating among peers with large differences in abilities may thwart feelings of competence and belonging among YWPD (Shirazipour et al., 2018) and contribute to negative sport experiences (Orr et al., 2018). The present findings underscore the importance of providing YWPD with opportunities to engage in positive interpersonal interactions through sport, and suggest that experiencing a sense of competence, relatedness, and acceptance could support the development of positive social outcomes.

Personal Outcomes

YWPD believed that sport provided them with opportunities to work towards achieving a goal, overcoming a challenging task (e.g., learning a new skill), and coping with difficult or unpleasant situations (e.g., tough loss, failed attempt, injury). From these experiences, YWPD spoke about learning to work hard, push themselves, persevere, and stay positive. For example,

And for track and field, like never give up almost? Is one of the things I’ve learned. Because sometimes it can be next to impossible to complete or accomplish but really if you practice every day, every week you’ll eventually get there. I didn’t think I’d be able to throw past five meters for shot put but now I’m throwing like seven meters like it’s not impossible you just have to work really hard towards it (P6, F, Age 17, Wheelchair Basketball and Track & Field – Throwing).

These findings reinforce the notion that when YWPD feel adequately challenged in their sport (i.e., perceive that activities require their best effort, test their limits and push them beyond their comfort zone), they are more likely to have quality experiences (Evans et al., 2018) that may, in turn, promote positive outcomes (Turnnidge et al., 2012).

YWPD reported a greater sense of physical independence from playing sport (e.g., feeling free from constraints and having control over their body and experiences) because it provided them with opportunities to exert their autonomy: “It [skiing] let’s me go down the hill at my own pace, at my own speed in my own area” (P5, M, Age 14, Sledge Hockey and Adapted Skiing). Independence is an outcome that has been previously identified by researchers examining sport participation among youth with (Turnnidge et al., 2012) and without disabilities (Holt et al., 2017).

Participants described favourable outcomes associated with experiencing mastery (e.g., accomplishing a goal, learning a skill, and winning), such as feeling confident, proud, empowered, and competent. These feelings seemed to be reinforced when YWPD completed these achievements independently (i.e., without needing assistance from others or support from assistive devices supported these feelings). For example,

So, in sledge hockey you have to use a lot of ab work to get up once you fall over. And I just completed an accomplishment two weeks ago of getting up by myself. It took a lot of work to do it. I was really focusing on my workout habits to try and accomplish it. I felt great. Once I got up, I felt like I could be a professional player. I felt like no one could get in my way anymore. I felt like I was on top of my disability, and nothing could stop me (P7, M, Age 15, Sledge Hockey and Adapted Skiing).

These findings suggest that participating in organized sport may offer valuable experiences through which YWPD can develop positive self-perceptions and experience a sense of independence, and competence (te Velde et al., 2018; Turnnidge et al., 2012). However, YWPD indicated that experiences which limited their ability to improve or successfully participate and compete contributed to negative self-perceptions (e.g., embarrassment and incompetence) and emotions (e.g., frustration and discouragement): “I didn’t win anything for the A-champs this weekend because they compared my time to able bodies, so they are still working on it. It’s kind of frustrating because it’s not fair. And I can’t kick, and they can” (P2, F, Age 14, Swimming). Similar experiences have been shown to hinder sport participation and thwart perceptions of autonomy and competence among YWPD (Orr et al., 2018).

Overall, the positive outcomes discussed are consistent with the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017) and seem to highlight the importance of enabling YWPD to feel appropriately challenged, successful, and autonomous within sport (Evans et al., 2018; Shirazipour et al., 2018) as a potential strategy for promoting PYD outcomes.

Life Skills

The previous sections illustrate that playing sport provided YWPD with many opportunities to develop and practice important skills within sport. Importantly, all participants recognized that the skills they learned through sport had helped (or could help) them succeed in different areas outside of sport (e.g., school, personal life, other sports and physical education class, and future careers). For example, one participant credited his ability to interact and socialize with others, to learning from his teammates and building his confidence through sport: “I’m now talking to people that I never would have if I didn’t build up the confidence and learn from other people that I played with” (P7, M, Age 15, Sledge Hockey and Adapted Skiing). Another participant made the connection between learning to be positive and open-minded in sport, and how it would help her in her transition to post-secondary education:

In sport you have to have a really big positive and open mind to be able to do stuff and accomplish, right? So, I think this positivity and accomplishment will help me when I have to go to school in like a month. I’m living in residence at [name of post-secondary institution]. Living alone, trying to accomplish everything, take care of myself. That really makes me really nervous right now thinking about all of that and having to do all of that on my own. Keeping a positive mind and knowing it’s gonna be ok and knowing it’s gonna work out. And that I have family around if I need them. I’ve learned that throughout sports just to stay positive, be happy (P6, F, Age 17, Wheelchair Basketball and Track & Field – Throwing).

Consistent with previous research (e.g., Turnnidge et al., 2012), these findings demonstrate a link between sport participation and life skill development among YWPD and highlight the importance of social factors within the sport context (Holt et al., 2017; Lower-Hoppe et al., 2021). Life skills are conceptualized as ‘internal personal assets, characteristics, and skills such as goal setting, emotional control, self-esteem, and hard work ethic that can be facilitated or developed in sport and transferred for use in non-sport settings’ (Gould & Carson, 2008, p. 60). This finding adds to existing disability sport research by providing evidence that organized sport participation may facilitate life skill transfer among YWPD, which is an essential component of life skill development (Pierce et al., 2017). However, YWPD did not elaborate on how they learned to make these connections, suggesting that life skill transfer may have occurred implicitly (e.g., in the absence of life skill transfer activities; Holt et al., 2017). It is possible that participants may have been unaware of specific strategies utilized by their coaches to teach life skill transfer (e.g., discussions or debriefs regarding how skills learned through sport can transfer to other contexts; Holt et al., 2017). As such, explicit learning should not be ruled out and should be further explored. Future research should examine the perspectives of YWPD and their coaches to further an understanding of how life skill development and transfer are facilitated through sport.

In sum, YWPD highlighted positive outcomes that aligned with the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017). Our findings extend previous research among YWPD (Turnnidge et al., 2012) by suggesting that organized sport has the potential to facilitate life skill transfer, as well as contribute to unfavourable outcomes among YWPD (i.e., negative emotions, negative self-perceptions and feeling left out). In each of the outcome themes, YWPD highlighted the influence of parents, peers, and coaches, as well as experiences that fostered independence, success, relatedness, and challenge; suggesting that these experiential elements may be instrumental in promoting PYD outcomes. These findings align with the notion of PYD climate (Holt et al., 2017) and share conceptual links with elements of mastery, challenge, belonging, and autonomy from the QP framework (Evans et al., 2018).

Theme Two: PYD Climate – The Importance of Parents, Peers, and Coaches

Theme two reflects the roles that parents, peers, and coaches played in shaping a social climate that contributed to the outcomes that YWPD acquired through sport. Theme two is comprised of the following three subthemes: a) providing support and encouragement, b) facilitating athletic development, and c) promoting a sense of community and connectedness.

Providing Support and Encouragement

Consistent with the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017), participants expressed that important social agents (i.e., parents, peers, and coaches) created a supportive environment by believing in them, “always being there”, providing words of encouragement (e.g., cheering), and recognizing their achievements. According to YWPD, this type of social support facilitated PYD outcomes through bolstered feelings of competence, belonging, and enjoyment:

Well, you know it influences my sport career significantly… if I had not had a great father, great coaches, and great teammates I would have never wanted to play this sport because you know, it’s ya… um they all you know they support me. They help out and make me feel part of a community which is a big part of my playing experience (P3, M, Age 16, Wheelchair Rugby).

Indeed, coaches provided an important source of support and encouragement, which was illustrated by the way athletes spoke about their coaches and/or instructors believing in them, always being there, and making them feel like they could accomplish anything. As one athlete explained:

Well I have a coach that’s pretty big on positivity and like making you feel like you can always accomplish something like you can always do it if you try hard enough. He’s always encouraging us to do better, to train properly, eat like really good, like do things to make us better (P6, F, Age 17, Wheelchair Basketball and Track & Field – Throwing).

This finding resonates with research among with (Turnnidge et al., 2012) and without disabilities (Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009), which suggests that supportive coaches can bolster athletes’ perceptions of competence by believing in them and expressing confidence in their abilities. YWPD also reported that peers positively impacted their sport experiences by providing an important source of social support through encouragement. For example,

One of my swim teammates, [teammate’s name], like I was nervous to go off the… sit on the block and do a sitting dive on the block and then I said to my mom I can’t do this. And then she [teammate] said, yes you can (P2, F, Age 14, Swimming).

This type of support has been shown to benefit the sport experiences of YWPD by enhancing their sense of connectedness with peers (e.g., displaying genuine care for each other’s success and accomplishments), as well as by helping them take on challenging tasks and overcome difficult situations (Turnnidge et al., 2012), which was also evident among YWPD in the current study.

Participants specifically commented about the unwavering support of parents (and family) through transportation, financial support (e.g., buying equipment), searching for sport opportunities, and involvement as a coach, assistant, spectator, or participant. According to YWPD, this support led to reassurance in their ability to participate safely, confidently, and successfully:

They [parents] supported me through games, they sat through horrible weather to watch me play. And just like their dedication and their support made me like, “k I’m doing the right thing by playing this sport” because they’re not like not showing up you know what I mean? Like they’re there coming to games, they’re supporting me and stuff like that and that helped me to be like, “ok I can play the sport how I want to play, because I have people behind me that support me regardless” (P8, M, Age 21, Soccer).

The PYD through sport model suggests that parent involvement may reinforce PYD by complementing and supporting the delivery of sport programs (e.g., engaging in discussions that help reinforce skills and lessons learned through sport; Holt et al., 2017). Comparatively, YWPD highlighted the importance of parent support and involvement in terms of facilitating positive sport experiences and directly affecting access to quality sport opportunities (Bloemen et al., 2015; Canadian Disability Participation Project, 2018a; Turnnidge et al., 2012; Wickman, 2015). Accordingly, parents may have reinforced PYD by creating opportunities for quality sport participation that may have otherwise been unfeasible.

These findings highlight the value of positive and supportive coach and peer relationships, as well as healthy parent involvement within sport (Holt et al., 2017), as this may promote PYD outcomes through strengthened feelings of competence, belonging, and enjoyment. Although supportive relationships are important to facilitate PYD outcomes among all youth sport participants (Holt et al., 2017), this work highlights the critical nature of this support for YWPD and speaks to the nuanced nature of support relationships for YWPD participating in sport (Javorina et al., 2021). Resources that support parents and coaches in facilitating positive relationships are desired and may help them to foster inclusive environments that optimize participation and outcomes for YWPD (Javorina et al., 2021).

Facilitating Athletic Development

YWPD explained that coaches and peers facilitated athletic development by creating opportunities to feel appropriately challenged, independent, and successful. According to participants, coaches contributed to several positive outcomes by setting high and achievable expectations, being attentive to the needs and abilities of YWPD, and providing assistance or adapting activities accordingly. For example,

They [instructors] can modify if it’s too challenging for my left hand. For like for our front crawl for example, like instead of just moving, circling both my arms out of the water I can just move my weak hand around in the water. When things get modified it makes it easier for me. Makes me feel like I can do everything everyone else can do (P1, M, Age 18, Swimming and Goal Ball).

When coaches can effectively assess and respond to the needs and abilities of athletes, they create safe and enjoyable opportunities for YWPD to test their limits, exert their independence, and experience success, which can foster positive self-perceptions, competence, and autonomy (Bloemen et al., 2015; Orr et al., 2018; Shirazipour et al., 2018; Turnnidge et al., 2012). Many of these experiential aspects of sport participation are highlighted in the QP framework (e.g., mastery, autonomy, challenge; Evans et al., 2018). In some cases, coaches may have contributed to negative outcomes (e.g., feeling frustrated, discouraged, embarrassed, left out) when they failed to provide appropriate adaptations, set low expectations, or made assumptions about the abilities of their athletes. For example,

They [coaches] think that they… that I cannot do stuff that I can try to do. And they lower the bar of expectations. My mom pushes me harder than my coaches do because they think I can’t do it. I think I would do much better if they pushed me harder like my mom does (P2, F, Age 14, Swimming).

Such negative experiences can jeopardize sport participation among YWPD by thwarting perceptions of autonomy, belongingness, and competence (Bantjes et al., 2015; Orr et al., 2018) which are highlighted in the QP framework as foundational to positive sport experiences for people with disabilities (Evans et al., 2018). Developing strong, positive coach-athlete relationships may be critically important in helping coaches get to know their athletes’ abilities and goals to ensure that expectations are set at a level that is appropriate for YWPD (Canadian Disability Participation Project, 2018a).

YWPD in the study described receiving important guidance, support, and feedback from peers, as well as experiencing opportunities to develop teamwork and leadership skills (e.g., teaching and helping others). They also noted that seeing peers perform skills or achieve goals motivated them to push themselves, work hard, and take on challenges:

Well people that umm have my disability that umm… have the same struggles that I do and um seeing them…ya know seeing them is kind of a motivation. They can accomplish such and such and I can do as well, so yeah (P3, M, Age 16, Wheelchair Rugby).

Indeed, coaches and peers can create opportunities for YWPD to experience challenge, autonomy, and mastery within sport (Evans et al., 2018; Shirazipour et al., 2018; Turnnidge et al., 2012). Sport contexts that encourage peer leadership and role-modeling can positively impact youth development (Eccles et al., 2003; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Holt et al., 2017). As such, it may be critical to ensure that coaches possess the skills, training, and supports necessary to facilitate these experiences, as well as to encourage opportunities for peer-leadership and role-modeling within sport, as a means of shaping a PYD climate that promotes positive outcomes.

Promoting a Sense of Community and Connectedness

Strong and enduring peer relationships are thought to contribute to the creation of a PYD climate by fostering “feelings of belonging to a wider community” (Holt et al., 2017, p. 33). YWPD indicated that strong peer- and coach-relationships, as well as parental involvement, promoted a sense of community (i.e., belonging to something “bigger than oneself”) and connectedness. For example, YWPD revealed that coaches contributed to a sense of belonging by being kind, relatable, and expressing an interest in getting to know and connect with their athletes. “I think she’s there also as a friend [instructor] … At our lunch time we kinda sit with her, we chat with her, we talk and we can just… she’s there for us” (P4, M, Age 15, Wheelchair Tennis and Adapted Skiing).

Coaches have been shown to foster feelings of social connection and belonging among athletes with disabilities by developing supportive and caring coach-athlete relationships (Shirazipour et al., 2017). Furthermore, there is a link between athletic competence and peer acceptance (Jones et al., 2011) such that coaches may have also promoted a sense of belonging by creating opportunities for YWPD to feel enabled and competent.

YWPD felt a sense of belonging when they engaged in shared experiences with peers (e.g., playing and having fun together, celebrating each other’s success). Many participants explained that feelings of belonging were enhanced when they participated among “similar peers” (i.e., also living with a disability), because they could more easily relate to them.

So, I met all these people in track and field and basketball I had more in common with them, I felt like I could relate to them and what they’ve gone through their whole life. Their life is so similar to mine. So, I dunno, we connected more I think than I would have with anyone else (P6, F, Age 17, Wheelchair Basketball and Track & Field—Throwing).

There is value in providing opportunities for athletes with disabilities to participate among peers who share similar experiences and impairments, as these could foster a greater acceptance and understanding within the sport environment (Turnnidge et al., 2012), and thus enhance perceptions of belonging (Shirazipour et al., 2018). YWPD also expressed enjoyment in having parents and family members actively involved in their sport experience (e.g., as a coach, trainer, spectator, or participant), because it created opportunities for them to spend time and have fun together.

I started skiing when I… last year. I fell in love with it. It was something I can do, my brother can do, and my mom can do. I could ski with them; I just needed a little help, but it was so much fun. I can talk about how the snow was so light and we can all relate to how it feels to be outside in the wilderness skiing, socializing, and having the times of our lives (P7, M, Age 15, Sledge Hockey and Adapted Skiing).

In addition to facilitating participation, parent (and family) support and involvement can promote feelings of social connection and belonging within sport (Evans et al., 2018; Shirazipour et al., 2017; Turnnidge et al., 2012). Consistent with the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017), belongingness may be an essential component of a sport context that promotes PYD outcomes among YWPD. Furthermore, a sense of belonging may provide YWPD with positive sport experiences that facilitate optimal outcomes (Evans et al., 2018) and may be achieved through experiences that cultivate strong connections with peers, as well as with coaches, and parents.

The Future of PYD Through Sport among YWPD, an Integrated Approach?

This study adds to the limited current literature by suggesting that PYD may provide a viable approach for understanding development through sport among YWPD. Although the PYD through sport model (Holt et al., 2017) served as the guiding framework for the current study, the participants highlighted elements of mastery, belonging, challenge, and autonomy from the QP framework (Evans et al., 2018), which may be critical to consider in pursuing further understanding of sport outcomes and experiences among YWPD. For instance, integrating QP concepts (e.g., mastery, challenge, autonomy, belonging) with traditional PYD models (e.g., Holt et al., 2017) may uncover mechanisms of PYD facilitation specific to YWPD. As such, future research may consider exploring the QP framework in the context of PYD. Perhaps when parents, peers, and coaches foster “quality experiences” (i.e., opportunities to experience a sense of belonging, mastery, autonomy, challenge, meaning, and engagement; Evans et al., 2018), they create a PYD climate through which YWPD can gain positive outcomes. In contrast, YWPD may experience negative outcomes if the social climate of sport does not support these aspects of quality participation. The QP framework primarily focuses on understanding the processes that promote quality parasport participation (Evans et al., 2018). The current study also extends the utility of the QP framework by identifying potential outcomes that may result from fostering or hindering quality participation. An integrated approach may further an understanding of the experiences that contribute to an optimal climate through which YWPD can develop PYD outcomes, as well as uncover the potential positive outcomes that come from fostering “quality experiences” through sport.

Pragmatically, there may be value in adopting an integrated approach to explore PYD through sport among YWPD. For instance, the Blueprint for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children, Youth, and Adults with a Disability (2018) is an evidence-based tool grounded in principles from the QP framework that was developed to inform program builders (e.g., administrators, coaches and policy makers) about strategies to foster belonging, autonomy, mastery, challenge, engagement, and meaning in sport (Canadian Disability Participation Project, 2018b). Since this tool has been used to inform programs that promote quality sport experiences, a novel first step could be to assess its use in promoting positive outcomes among YWPD within the context of a PYD framework (e.g., Holt and colleagues’ model; 2017).

Strengths, Limitations and Future Research Considerations

A major strength of the current study was the diversity of participants’ sport experiences. The diverse experiences allowed for consideration of outcomes across a wide range of sports (e.g., goalball, wheelchair basketball, rugby, and tennis, adapted skiing, sledge hockey, swimming, track and field and soccer) and levels (e.g., recreational, competitive, provincial, and national). Furthermore, findings were drawn from participants’ positive and negative sport experiences, which broadens an understanding of how sport participation may promote or hinder positive development among YWPD.

Because the sample did not include YWPD who withdrew from sport, the findings may have been positively biased. To address this limitation and expand on the potential factors hindering PYD through sport, it would be valuable to hear the voices of YWPD who had particularly negative experiences and withdrew from sport. It would also be interesting to understand the similarities (and differences) in youth and adult parasport experiences. Future research should also look to further contextualize the sport experiences of YWPD in relation to aspects of various sport programs (e.g., age of peers/teammates, level of experience of coaches). It was beyond the scope of the current study to understand the impact of individual (e.g., level of impairment or disability) and broader contextual factors on PYD (e.g., institutional, community, and policy). These factors likely contribute to parasport experiences and outcomes (Martin Ginis et al., 2016) and future research should examine how these factors may facilitate or hinder PYD through sport among YWPD. It may be valuable to explore the perspectives of parents and program providers, alongside those of YWPD, to gain insight regarding how the availability and accessibility of sport programs (e.g., parents’ perspective) and program design and delivery (e.g., program provider’s perspective) may influence YWPD sport experiences and outcomes.